This is the FOURTEENTH page of John BLANKENBAKER's series of Short Notes on GERMANNA History, which were originally posted to the GERMANNA_COLONIES Discussion List. Each page contains 25 Notes.
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GERMANNA History Notes Page 14 |
Nr. 326:
On the 24th and the 25th of April, the Pennsylvania chapter of the Palatines
to America held their spring conference with Dr. Alfred Hans Kuby as the
featured speaker. Dr. Kuby lives in Edenkoben, in the Palatinate. He is known
as a minister, historian, and genealogist. In one talk, he gave glimpses of
life in Edenkoben during the 17th and 18th centuries.
Around 1670, Edenkoben had 500 inhabitants. As a result of the Thirty Years'
War the population had been greatly reduced from earlier numbers and it was
many decades before the population was rebuilt. One way in which the
population was rebuilt was by emigration from other Germanic regions.
Dr. Kuby documents that between 1653, shortly after the end of the war, and
1699, there was a total of 50 families who came from Switzerland to
Edenkoben. (One of these families has a Germanna name, Amberger, but I would
not claim there was any relationship to the Germanna family.)
In 1715, three families came from French regions, one family came from
Flemish regions, one from Italy, and one from another German region. There
was therefore a wide diversity of people living in Edenkoben.
In the next year, the pattern was similar. Perhaps there is a connection to
the large number who emigrated from German regions in 1717, as these
movements of people may have indicated very unsettled conditions.
The ruler of the Palatinate was Catholic and that was the favored religion.
If one wanted to hold a public office, one must be a Catholic; however, a
majority of the people were Reformed and a smaller number were Lutheran.
There were difficulties for the Protestants but the climate was not
oppressive. The Protestants had to observe the Catholic holy days. They
could not do any work on these days, not even washing clothes at home. If
they were caught, they were fined, with the fine going to the Catholic Church.
We now know that many of our Germanna people have origins outside the region
from whence they migrated to America. For example, Christopher Zimmerman's
ancestors came from the Canton of Bern in Switzerland. As you climb the
Willheit tree, you find Swiss origins for some of the people. Many of the
Germanna families had ancestors who had migrated into Germanic regions from other
places. The Blankenbakers, for example, started on a path that originated in
Austria and stopped first in Bavaria before moving west, close to the Rhine River, on
lands of the Bishops of Speyer (now Baden). The Harnsbergers appear to have emigrated
directly from Switzerland to Virginia but one cannot be sure that they did
not do this is a two-stage move. They may have moved to a "German" region
but left almost immediately for the New World.
Nr. 327:
In 1670, Edenkoben in the Palatinate had a population of about five hundred.
This number was less than in previous times due to the ravages of the Thirty
Years' War. Immigration from Switzerland, France, and other German regions
helped the city grow. Let us say that by the early 1700's, the population
was up to one thousand.
Disease and sickness limited the growth rate. In the Spring of 1735, 37
people died of a plague; in 1743, 32 died. During the first two and a half
months of 1750, 26 children died, the oldest of whom was seven. In 1755, 31
children died in four months. In 1762, 64 passed away during the first half
of the year. In 1768, from February to August, 50 people died, including 30
children. In 1783, a total of 135 people succumbed, which was 48 more than
were born that year. Small pox was the chief culprit for the children.
I am taking the numbers from a talk at the Pennsylvania chapter meeting of
Palatines to America by Dr. Alfred Hans Kuby, a life long resident of
Edenkoben, who has researched the church and civil records to unfold the
history. Dr. Kuby makes the point that as the town rebuilt its population it
grew very crowded. Land around the town was needed for grazing, grain, and
grapes. It is no wonder that the reports of "lots of cheap land" and "free
exercise of religion" by agents for William Penn were received so receptively.
As to the state of education, in 1721, an order was issued to the larger
communities, such as Edenkoben, to employ a school girl to motivate other
girls to learn to read and write. This implies that the boys were compelled,
and girls were encouraged, to go to school.
Many years there were general crop failures. This made an extreme hardship
for the citizens since taxes went on and on. One tax in 1730 was a per
capita assessment to pay the costs for the Prince Elector to build an
enormous castle at Mannheim (housing Mannheim University today). The Prince
was called an Elector because he was one of the limited number of people who
voted on the election of the German Emperor. At the time, Heidelberg was the
capital city of Kurpfalz, which we know today as the Palatinate.
A government order of 1749 prohibited citizens from leaving for Pennsylvania
without official permission. Included in the prohibition was a ban on
selling property by those who had permission. The order may have been in
response to the large number of people who wanted to leave. In the three
years from 1749 to 1752, almost 70 people did leave for Pennsylvania. A
major reason was poor economic conditions arising from bad weather. The
minor religious oppressions were a factor also.
Ludwig Walter led a cow across the street during the Catholic church
services on St. Mary's Ascension day. He was fined one Florin to be paid to
the Catholic church. Other recorded fines included ones for turning the hay
(to dry) and hanging laundry.
Nr. 328:
The question has been asked as to how land was transferred from the Indians
to the settler. I had mentioned that some of the Germans in New York had
purchased land directly from the Indians. This was not a normal sequence of
events.
Generally, the colonial governments and the English crown took the attitude
that the land belonged to the Indians. There were flaws in their thinking
because the English King claimed authority over all of America north of
Florida up to the French in Canada. There were recognized Indian nations.
In Pennsylvania, it was a major point that the Colony would only allow
settlement on land that the Colony had purchased from the Indians. In the
later periods at least, New York followed a similar policy. In Virginia,
there were treaties which recognized boundaries between the Indians and the
Europeans. Because there were "considerations" in these treaties, they might
be considered as purchase agreements.
In 1722, Gov. Spotswood sailed to Albany, New York, to attend a major
conference with the Indians. There were representatives of Pennsylvania and
New York at this meeting which lasted for many weeks. As a result of this,
the Six Nations of Indians agreed to stay to the west of the Blue Ridge
Mountains in Virginia, while the Europeans were permitted to travel on the
west side along the Warrior's path, but the Shenandoah Valley was not to be
settled by the whites.
This is often the story of westward expansion. Lines were drawn which were
to be the limit of white settlement. Many times the King or the colonial
governments tried to enforce this. But invariably the settlers went ahead of
the land purchases from the Indians. This left the government with the task
of procuring the land from the Indians which the Europeans had already
settled. It was embarrassing to the colonial government because of the
violations of the treaties. They also wanted to enforce the idea that the
Indians sold to the colonial governments, and they in turn sold to the
settlers. (As a part of these sales, quit rents were collected indefinitely.)
I mentioned that the Germans along the Hudson River in New York purchased
land directly from the Indians at Schoharie. This land had not yet come
under the control of the New York colony. It upset them very much and they
threatened the Germans with eviction, and the Germans could not obtain a
title through the colony.
Among these Germans was the Weiser family. Young Conrad Weiser, a teenager,
went to live with the Indians for a while. He learned their language and
came to appreciate their way of life. Later the Weiser family moved to
Pennsylvania. He was trusted by both the Indians and the whites and he was
present at all major conferences to aid in presenting the case of each side.
(One of Conrad's daughters became the wife of Henry Melchoir Muhlenberg, the
great Lutheran leader.)
It is my feeling, but not buttressed by any extensive research, that the
Germans accepted the Indians as equals and could live harmoniously with them.
Incidentally, when Gov. Spotswood returned from the conference at Albany, he
found that he was no longer governor. He moved from Williamsburg to his new
home at Germanna where he was planning to develop his vast empire of more
than 100,000 acres, most of which lay to the west of Germanna in the region
which the Indians had just conceded to Virginia.
If anyone else can add to or correct the story here, please speak up.
Nr. 329:
The Hans Herr House has a "root cellar." When I taking people around the
house and we are in the cellar, I ask them to name what might be found here
along about December 15 when Christian Herr lived in the house (he died in
1750). One of the choices that about half the people say is "potatoes." Of
course, this is the reason I ask them. I have led them into a wrong answer
and therefore the point is reinforced. But in the early eighteenth century,
the potato was not trusted by Europeans. Its place was taken by other root
vegetables such as the turnip, carrot, parsnip, and rutabaga.
I have read a will of the time, in which the author commands his son to grow
one-quarter acre of turnips each year for his mother. Another vegetable
which was extremely popular was cabbage.
Dr. Kuby, in his remarks about Edenkoben, makes a few comments about diet.
He had been asked, "What did the people eat during the eighteenth century?"
His response was that in the nineteenth century it was potatoes for
breakfast, lunch, and dinner. By then, the potato was accepted. It started
coming in use late in the second half of the eighteenth and by the
nineteenth century was in widespread use. By then, the Europeans were so
dependent on it that a crop failure was a disaster.
But in the eighteenth century, a better answer to the question of what
people ate was "our daily bread." Grains that were used were rye, spelt, and
oats. Grains, millet and barley, were also used to make a pulp. They added
lentils, peas, beans, carrots, onions, and white and red cabbage. They had
butter and made cheese. Everybody drank wine but most people also drank
milk. Most meals were without meat. Occasionally they had a chicken and very
often they had eggs. In November or at Christmas they might have a goose.
For treats, the Jewish merchant sold herrings. Other treats were chestnuts,
almonds, apples, and pears.
Meat was not common; taste buds were more often satisfied by wine. Though
almost everyone drank wine, they probably had fewer drunkards than nowadays.
A special food was "Latwerg," a kind of jam, made from Damson plums and
spices. Since they did not have the right kind of Damson plum in
Pennsylvania, they used apples and produced that Pennsylvania Dutch
speciality, apple butter.
Dr. Kuby's comments have a special reference to Edenkoben whose history he
has studied in great depth. I believe that we could modify his comments to
apply to America in the following way. Because of the availability of land,
it was feasible to grow more animals. Hence, meat became more prominent in
the diet. Grapes were not as plentiful and wine was reduced in importance.
Apples were much more abundant. These were cut up and dried and by this
technique they lasted many months. Much cider was made and it sometimes
turned hard. Often it was distilled to make a very alcoholic drink for
consumption and for sale. Fruit had another purpose, fattening of animals in
the fall of the year. Hogs could find enough food in the forest that no
special effort or attention was required during most of the year. But as
fall came, if the hogs had not found the orchards, they were driven in to
clean up the fruit on the ground.
Nr. 330:
One of the most frequently asked questions is, "Where do I find the ship's
list of passengers?" The answer in the eighteenth century is that unless you
are talking about Philadelphia, there are no passenger lists. However, many
of the Germanna people came through Philadelphia. For example, we have
Andreas Gar who arrived at Philadelphia, lived for a while at Germantown,
and then moved to the Robinson River community.
In Pennsylvania, three ships in 1717 carrying 363 Palatines arrived at
Philadelphia. Klaus Wust puts the number at a higher level than this, saying
that perhaps one thousand "Palatines" left that year. (We do know that
seventy-odd of these people who intended to go to Pennsylvania did not make
it. Instead the captain highjacked them and took them to Virginia.) In
Pennsylvania, Gov. William Keith was concerned that so many "foreigners"
were immigrating. The Council ordered that the captains turn in lists of
names of the people that they had brought. The order may have been too late,
as many of the passengers may have dispersed already. We do know that no
lists have survived of these passengers.
For the next ten years, the order of the Council was ignored even though the
ships were bringing in an increasing number of immigrants from "foreign"
parts. A new governor in 1726, Patrick Gordon, was concerned at the number
of people who were entering without the permission of the Crown. (Of course,
William Penn had made a determined effort to get people from Germany to come
to Pennsylvania.) Gordon was also upset that some of these people settled on
land without making any application to the Proprietor who now owned the
land. He was perhaps even thinking of the Tulpehocken settlers who came in
the back door from Schoharie in New York and settled on the western lands
beyond the general limits of civilization at the time.
Gordon started enforcing the existing law and added the requirement that
these foreigners must take an oath of Allegiance to King George II, including
signing their name. These names were entered into the minutes of the Council.
The first 43 oath lists are preserved in the "Minutes of the Provincial
Council of Pennsylvania," sometimes called the "Colonial Records." These
lists are incomplete as many of the passengers were too sick to attend the
ceremony. Other lists have been published in the "Pennsylvania Archives",
where many of the captain's lists are also to be found. One might think that
the Captain's lists and the oath lists would duplicate each other but there
are differences.
The captains did not always follow the same rules in preparing their lists.
Some only listed males above the age of sixteen. Some listed all family
members. If the male head of the family died on the trip, the odds are that
the rest of the family will not be listed. The only rule of regularity is
that each captain prepared his list according to his own rules.
In addition to the captain's list and the loyalty oath, there were
naturalization lists. With all of this information, one might think it would
be possible to compose a complete list of the Philadelphia immigrants in the
eighteenth century (after 1727). Two extensive compilations have been made,
but we'll talk about those in the next note.
My understanding of his subject has been helped by hearing a presentation by
Annette K. Burgert. Using lists of emigrants from German sources, she has
pioneered in matching emigrants to immigrants. She has become very familiar
with the Pennsylvania lists.
Nr. 331:
More than one hundred years ago, Daniel Rupp compiled a list of names of
foreign immigrants who came through Philadelphia in the years 1727 to 1776.
The earlier date was determined by the time that Pennsylvania enforced the
laws pertaining to registration of foreign immigrants. The later date was
the start of the Rev. War, which halted immigration temporarily. His
compilation included about 30,000 names, hence the title, "A Collection of
Upwards of Thirty Thousand Names of German, Swiss, Dutch, French, and other
Immigrants to Pennsylvania from 1727 to 1776." For short, the book is
referred to as "Thirty Thousand Names."
Rupp assumed that the information in the different lists, such as the
captain's lists, the loyalty oath lists, and the naturalization lists
contained the same names and so he used only one set. As a consequence, his
set of names is not as complete as it could be. He had to translate many of
the German signatures, and, in the process, made errors. He also committed
the crime of reordering the lists. In his time, it was not recognized that
there was much information in the order of the names. He used a few sources
of information other than the three lists above, and some of his suggestions
have led to arguments. The book has been reprinted and is nearly always
available.
The "Pennsylvania Archives, Second Series", in volume XVII, expanded upon
Rupp's work by using the Captain's lists also. But, they used Rupp's
translation of the names and so the errors of Rupp were perpetuated.
The Pennsylvania German Society was moved in the 1930's to issue a book,
"Pennsylvania German Pioneers." This was in three volumes, including one
volume of facsimile signatures. It was now possible to consult the
signatures and determine for yourself whether the translated name was
correct. Another significant advantage was the ability to compare the
signature at immigration with the signature on later documents to see if
they were the same. Thus, you might be able to answer the question of whether
you had the right ancestor.
PGP was reprinted several times, but without the signature volume. Nettie
Shreiner-Yantis made up for this deficit by publishing the signature volume.
More recently, Picton Press has reprinted the entire three volume set,
including all illustrations.
Annette K. Burgert, who has done so much on emigration and immigration
records, says that the PGP is considered the most accurate version of the
immigrant names, but even it contains errors, duplications, and omissions.
Each captain used his own rules in making up the ship's list, so that the
amount and type of information are uncertain. Since many ships arrived with
very sick passengers, not all arrivals made it to the taking of the loyalty
oaths. Though the PGP contains an index, it is not to be completely trusted.
If you have not heard Mrs. Burgert speak and you are looking for an ancestor
in Europe, you should try to hear her. She has many good ideas.
Nr. 332:
In the last note, I mentioned Annette K. Burgert and recommended, if you had
the opportunity, that you hear her. I heard her at the Virginia Chapter
meeting of the Palatines to America at their spring meeting.
There are lots of problems in attempting to carry a German name here back to
Germany. You may be so lucky as to have a name such as Smith here. In
Germany there are almost one-half million Schmids. Surprisingly, since "d"
and "t" interchange so frequently, there are only 258 Schmits. But spelled
as Schmitt, there are fifty-one thousand of them. All of these start "Sch",
which is very typical German. But there is one solitary Shmidt in Germany.
(Maybe he just wanted to be different.)
In general, searching for the origins of a Smith family in German is
difficult; however, the origins of two of the Germanna Smith families have
been found. The successful technique in these cases is instructive. The
search was for other Germanna families; the Smith families happened to
neighbors of the Clores and Weavers. But once a Germanna-like group was
found, it was quite easy to identify the Smiths.
There are some common translations of German names to English. Carpenter
goes back to Zimmerman, Weaver to Weber, Taylor/Tailor to Schneider,
Dear/Deer to Hirsch, Cook to Koch. In the last of these cases, one
researcher that I know is working on the principle of trying to find the
location of friends and relatives.
Or the German name may be spelled in English to sound alike; a prime example
is Vrede in German, which becomes Frady in English. Typically "-bach" becomes
"back," "sch" becomes simply "sh", so that names such as Fischbach become
Fishback. Also, never does the ending "man" occur in Germany, the preferred
form being "mann." The ending "le" is rare in Germany; more common is the
transpose, "el." Thus, there are more than five thousand Kunkels in Germany
but only one Kunkle.
Another problem in searching for a name in Germany is that spelling has
changed there also as it has here. Johann Michael Willheit has become many
names here; in Germany, the name has changed also. One change that is common
is the use of new vowels in an old name. Thus, there are 207 Schirks, 117
Scherks, 21 Schierks, and 75 Schurks.
Commonly, the spelling of Blankenbaker in Germany has been considered to be
Blankenbuehler. There are over a dozen occurrences of this latter name in
Germany today. It would be interesting to know if this is the same family.
It is known that "Blankenbakers" remained in Germany after the 1717 emigration.
The counts of the occurrences of names used here, come from the German
telephone books. These are available on-line and give you the names,
addresses, and zipcodes. I don't know if there is a concept in Germany of
unlisted (or private) numbers. (Maybe someone could tell us.)
Most of the thoughts today come from Ken McCrea who is the keeper of the
Palatines to America homepage.
Nr. 333:
Not long ago, I acquired a relatively new book, "The German Research
Companion," by Shirley J. Riemer. The book is more than 600 pages of
information about Germany and genealogy. The first five of the thirty-three
chapters are:
Much of the material pertains to the nineteenth century as opposed to the eighteenth century.
The range of material is unusual and one wonders how it was all acquired.
Chapter 21 is: Religions, and a short note is given on almost every church
with a European origin. Because many of these churches have merged in this
past century, these mergers are given. If there is an archive for a
denomination, that is given.
To give an idea of some of the crafts to which your ancestors might have belonged, here
is a listing of the craftsmen in the city of Jena in 1800:
(Notice there is none that pertains to light such as candlemakers.)
In the city of Jena, wages in 1804 were between 8 and 15 Talers per month
for the craftsmen. One Taler is equal to 24 Groschen and each Groschen is
equal to 12 Pfennige. Guldens were another common coin and it took one and a
half gulden to equal one Taler. One hundred and sixty liters (about a
bushel?) of wheat cost 12 Taler. (See Note 335 below for a discussion of
how many Bushels 160 Liters equals.) The same quantity of oats cost only 3
Taler. One pfund (about one pound) of beef was only 2 groschen and pork was
the same, but a beef tongue was 10 to 12 groschen. One sausage (bratwurst)
cost one groschen. To judge these prices, a craftsman was earning about 240
groschen per month. One old hen was 6 or 7 groschen, but a hare was 10 to 18.
Other meats you could buy were: eel, carp, venison, goose, duck, pigeons,
bacon, & liver; however, the predominance of meats here in the price list
should not indicate that meat was a main stay. Many of the vegetables were
home grown.
Unfortunately, "The German Research Companion," is poorly edited. Spaces are
missing so words are run together, and even lines of type of missing. Since
the book is loaded with facts, one wonders how carefully the details were checked.
Nr. 334:
The remarks in this note continue the previous discussion of the "The German
Research Companion", by Shirley Riemer. Chapters 6 through 10 are:
Until the middle of the fourteenth century, Latin was the official written
language of the Holy Roman Empire, which comprised most of the German
speaking regions in Europe today. At this time, German was adopted in the
court documents of the HRE. By 1500, German was in use in many states and
cities as the official language. A big boost came from its adoption by the
Universities of Leipzig and Wittenberg. It was the written language of the
educated classes.
The printing press, and the books which resulted from it, helped standardize
the language, as the books had a wide circulation. The literary language,
especially, was becoming standardized. In the spoken languages of the
different regions, there were differences in spelling, in the choice of
words, and the pronunciation of words.
Martin Luther helped the standardization cause when he published his
translation of the Bible into German. He was aware of differences, but he
tried to find a common ground in his choice of words. This Bible helped to
define High German, which took its name from the region where it was most
common, in the southern, higher elevations, as opposed to the northern,
almost sea level elevations. Within a century the literary language was well
recognized.
Regional differences in spelling and pronunciation continued until almost
the end of the 19th century. In 1898, a commission of university professsors
and representatives of the theater codified rules of pronunciation for the
stage. Further work has refined and extended this to Standard German
(Deutsche Hochsprache).
That the development of standards took so long is the result of the
political fragmentation of Germany, which was not united until 1871. In 1901,
representatives of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland devised a standardized
spelling. Reform continues but is opposed by some. One of the spelling
proposals would change "Open-Air Festival" to "Openairfestival." (Anyone who
has examined web pages that originate in Germany will be impressed by the
number of "English" words that they use. It sometimes leaves in doubt as to
which language is being used.)
Of course, English and German have a common root. In some Low German areas,
the language shows this. My German teacher (not that I have studied German
much) said that in a tour of Germany they came to area when she couldn't
tell if they speaking bad English or bad German.
Nr. 335:
Warren Lawrence corrected my estimate that 160 liters of grain would be
about one bushel. He found that ten liters equals 0.284 bushels. Thus, 160
liters would be 16 times .284 or 4.54 bushels. Please make this correction
in note 333. And thank you, Warren, for bringing this to our attention.
Betty Barlow (Email her at: BetBarlow@aol.com)
asked a question which will be the main topic of this note. Her ancestor M. Beller
(one of the ways that Barlow was spelled in the early days) had a joint land patent with M. Smith.
This was issued in 1726. She observes that all of the patents in the Robinson River
Valley that were issued in this time period seemed to have no specification
of either fees or head rights. In other words the land seems to be free.
Betty is correct. The land was free. The members of the Second Colony were
able to take advantage of a law proposed by Alexander Spotswood that was enacted
into law. This law was a part of the legislation creating the new counties
of Spotsylvania and Brunswick. The law, in effect, said that to encourage
settlement in the new counties, land in them would be free for ten years. As
the law was passed, it was vague about what was to be forgiven. Also, the
law was unusual legislation and required approval in England. It took a
while, but in the main, smaller parcels were free of the initial payment and
were free of the quitrents. Both provisions were limited to seven years.
Only the county of Spotsylvania benefitted, as Brunswick was not ready for
development. Of course, the prime beneficiary of the new law was Spotswood,
who had more than 100,000 acres in the new county. (He admitted to only
about 85,000 acres.)
Willis Kemper, who wrote the early Kemper and Fishback histories, was not
aware of this law and its effect. As a consequence, he misinterpreted
history and came to the wrong conclusion, which has biased the understanding
of the roles of all of the Germans. He had asked himself, "Why didn't the
Second Colony move to the general location of the First Colony at Germantown
and so form a single German community." He seemed to take this a personal
insult to the First Colony people and he felt that an answer was necessary.
The best that he could come up with was that there was an antagonism between
the groups because of the religious differences. The First Colony was
Reformed and the Second Colony was Lutheran.
Land was free in Spotsylvania County and that is a more likely reason that
the Second Colony chose to make their permanent homes in the Robinson River
Valley.
Returning to the Smith-Beller joint patent, it remains an unsolved question
as to why the two men decided to do this. Joint patents often indicate some
relationships between the families, but I believe that none are known in
this case.
Nr. 336:
Continuing the discussion of the "German Research Companion", by Shirley
Riemer, the Eleventh through the Fifteen chapters are:
(From this, one can see that not all of the contents are oriented to Germany.)
Material that was especially interesting were the lists of items that Liww�t
Knapke Bernard B�ke prepared in preparation for the planned immigration to
America. She probably prepared the lists herself, to judge from her career afterward.
She had hoped that they could travel together, but he came first and she
followed shortly after. They were married in Cincinnati not long after she
arrived in 1835.
His list of things to take:
ITEMS TO BE TRANSPORTED IN A SATCHEL: Crucifix, prayer book, baptismal
certificate, rosary, bottle of holy water, soap, drinking cup, salve, cream,
and a hand towel.
ITEMS TO BE PACKED IN A TRUNK: Books, mirror, bed linen, lamp black in a
bottle with a stopper, pliers, cow hide, strap or belt, mallet, scissors,
twine, hood, tacks, file, sealing wax, and a seal.
ITEMS TO BE PACKED IN ANOTHER TRUNK: Pot cover, spoon, knife, blankets,
pillows, towels, silver and dishes, bucket, medicine, bed linens, plate,
cloths, shirts, a kettle, a feather tick, an apron, and stockings.
PLANNED FOR CARRYING IN A POUCH: Sugar, flour, groats, salt, chocolate
wafers, potatoes, a coat, bacon, meat, bread, dried apples, cracklings,
lard, a pin for closing clothes, shoes, rice, beans, sauerkraut, honey, a
bed spread, and scarves.
Her list of things to take:
ITEMS TO BE PACKED IN A SATCHEL: Crucifix, prayerbook, rosary, bottle of
holy water, drinking cup, salve, baptismal certificate, soap.
ITEMS TO BE PACKED IN A TRUNK: Books, mirror, bed linen, muslin, ink in a
bottle with a stopper, sanitary napkins, paper, quill pens, pillows,
chemise, dresses, snow cap, blankets, feather tick, woolen blanket,
stockings, nightgowns.
ITEMS TO BE PACKED IN ANOTHER TRUNK: Knife, spoons, forks, hatpin, ball of
thread, towels, aprons, needles, yarn, plate, thread, purse, thimble,
buttons, cotton thread, silk thread, dish rag, shoes.
TO CARRY IN A POUCH: Sugar, flour, salt, groats, bacon, meat, bread, dried
apples, rice, beans, potatoes, sauerkraut.
Then, there was a Seeds List:
SMALL BAGS OF GRAIN SEEDS: Seed corn, oats, wheat, clover, barley, rye.
SMALL BAGS OF FRUIT SEEDS: Apples, cherries, peaches, pears, quince, plums,
apricots.
SMALL BAGS OF FLOWER SEEDS: Margarita, snapdragon, peonies, lady slipper,
morning glory, tulips or crocuses.
Nr. 337:
Chapters 16 through 20 of "The German Research Companion" by Shirley Riemer
are:
Food has been a topic in recent comments. Here is the menu on a "cruise
ship," meaning an immigrant ship of about 1850, after more than a century of
German emigration.
In 1822, Louis J�ngerich, who had recently immigrated to America, wrote home
to his mother, brother, and sister, in Hessen, and gave them specific
instructions on what to do if they decided to come to America. He advised
signing on for passage without including provisioning. He advised buying
their own food, enough for the 90 days that the passage might take. His
recommendations per person were:
[Three tin kettles were recommended, two for cooking and one for liquids. And do not
forget your spoons, knives, forks, and cups. The vinegar was to take the
place of the ship's water which was not considered safe (it wasn't).]
Louis reported that the best meals were as follows, "I took the ship's
zwieback or hardtack that was handed out to us, and butter, soaked the
zwieback so that it became spongy, and cooked it in water, adding the
butter. This was our best dish . . ."
He explained that the zweiback was not the familiar twice toasted bread, but
rather a biscuit-like bread product baked especially to travel well and
remain palatable.
Shirley Riemer gives many references as to where she obtained her material.
In the case of the letter home from Louis, the modern source was "The
Pennsylvania Mennonite Heritage," Vol. XIX, No.3, July 1996.
Nr. 338:
The twenty-first through the twenty-fifth chapters of Riemer's "The German
Research Companion" are:
Benjamin Franklin has been quoted as saying, "Why should Pennsylvania, which
was founded by Englishmen, become a colony of foreigners, who will soon be
so numerous that they will be Germanizing us instead of our Anglicizing
them?" It is true that Pennsylvania had a good share of Germans. A Hessian
soldier commented, "If you closed your eyes, you could believe you were in
Germany."
The very first Germans to America were at Jamestown but it is not clear
whether they even left descendants. While individuals surely came and went,
the first group to come was the Germantown settlers outside of Philadelphia
in 1683. These were augmented by additional people through the following
years. In 1709 and in 1710, large groups came to New York and North
Carolina. Anabaptists started coming in 1710 to Pennsylvania. In Virginia,
the first group, since the Jamestown settlers, came in 1714. Growth in
Virginia was steady but no where near the growth in Pennsylvania.
The growth in the number of German immigrants to America was not uniform but
it did increase constantly. By 1800, nine percent of the population had ties
to Germany. Very large numbers of immigrants started arriving in 1815 and
grew throughout the century. The peak year was 1882, when a record quarter
of a million Germans came to America. In the last few decades, the numbers
have fallen sharply. It has been estimated that altogether, more than eight
million Germans have moved to America in our four hundred years of settlement.
Using the 1990 census, it has been estimated that more Americans can be
associated with a German background than with any other nationality. In
order, the other groups are the Irish, the English, the Italians, and the
Polish. This is before other Germanic groups are included, as for example,
the Alsatians, the Austrians, the Luxemburgers, the Swiss-Germans, and the
Russian-Germans.
The claim can be made that the Germans are the major ethnic group in America.
My grandfather, John Henry Blankenbaker, died in 1918. He was pure German in
the sense that all of his ancestors here in America were descended from
German immigrants of the early eighteenth century. Therefore he represents
two hundred years of life in America. I never met him myself, since he died
several years before I was born. It would have been interesting to have
talked to him and learned to what extent he thought of himself as German. He
may not have recognized that he was a full-blooded German.
Nr. 339:
Let me define two situations. In the first, let us imagine a barrier around
what is now the United States. Let us note the nationality of everyone who
came to live inside this barrier. These are the immigrants. As each
immigrant came in, we ask them where they were born by their country of
origin. Of course, it now after the fact and a little late for actual
counting but it is possible to make some intelligent guesses about the
numbers and the nationalities. If I divide the total number of immigrants by
the number who came from England, the answer is something like A% English.
In a like manner, perhaps B% came from Ireland, C% came from France, and D%
came from Germany.
Here is the second situation. I visit everybody and ask them what percentage
of their genes came from the different nations. From this, I can form an
average so that the "typical" individual in the US is W% English, X% Irish,
Y% French, Z% German, and so on.
The two situations that I have described can and do yield radically
different answers. That is, the A, B, C, and D numbers do not look like the
W, X, Y, and Z numbers. The reason is that the arrivals of the different
nationalities occurred at much different times. It could be the case that
the average individual in the US owes 50% of his genes to English origins,
yet the English numbered only 10% of the immigrants. In the same way, the
typical American may be only 10% German, but the Germans sent more immigrants
than any other nationality.
In quoting some statistics in the last note, I wanted only to emphasize the
importance of the German immigrants to America. In the Germanna colonies,
the numbers were quite small and I wished to note that over the course of
time, many Germans came to America. I even used a personal example to suggest
that some people may have forgotten their origins. Some forgot deliberately,
others lost track in the passage of time.
The numbers yesterday came from Shirley Riemer who was quoting Dr. Don
Heinrich Tolzmann, the president of the Society for German-American Studies.
His work seems to have appeared in the UGAC-USA Newsletter for 3 September
1992. (I cannot find the full title to this newsletter in her sixteen pages
of reference titles.)
The twenty-sixth through the thirtieth chapters of Riemer's "The German
Research Companion" are:
Nr. 340:
The last two chapters of the "The German Research Companion" are:
An item from the book says that you can obtain an aerial photo of a German
village. I will just quote what the book says; I have no experience with this:
"The Cartographic and Architectural Branch of the National Archives
is able to provide photographs of German villages.
"To initiate a request, send a map on which the location of the village
is marked or provide the exact geographic coordinates (latitude and
longitude) of the village, along with any variant spellings that the
village name may have. The Cartographic and Architectural Branch
will reply with an order form and the negative numbers it has for the
village, as well as a cost list.
Cartographic and Architectural Branch (NNSC)
Allow four to six weeks for delivery."
Hofnamen (literally, farm names) . In rural areas, the owners of a farm
sometimes are known to their neighbors by a totally different family name
than the one shown on their birth or marriage register. This can happen when
the original, often centuries-old, name of a farm is passed on despite
changes in the owners' names. So a farm once owned by a family name Pfleger
was known as Pflegerhof (Pfleger's farm), even though the owner's official
name is now Maier. This is called the Hofname (name of the farm). Sometimes
a double name is used, such as Pfleger-Maier. I mention this especially
because B. C. Holtzclaw noted this phenomena in his research of the early
Siegen families.
Nr. 341:
The Second Germanna Colony moved to the Robinson River Valley in 1725.
According to the "Church Order" they wrote in 1776, they formally organized
as a Lutheran church in 1728. Probably, they built a log chapel about this
time. It is known there was a chapel, because deeds specifically refer to it.
For several years, they had no minister. During this time, Michael Smith
acted as a reader. In 1733, John Caspar St�ver was convinced to become
their minister, even though he was not ordained. After ordination, he served
for about two years before he and two members of the congregation went on a
fund raising trip to Germany that lasted several years. St�ver died on the
way home and his place was taken by George Samuel Kl�g, who had been hired
in Germany as an assistant minister. In 1739, when Kl�g and the money were
back, construction on the new church building started and the building was
completed in 1740. This building still stands, though it had been modified.
The original building was a simple rectangle with the long axis on an
east-west axis. There was no ceiling, the roof of the building serving for
this. There were two balconies, one at each end of the building. The altar
was in the middle of the north wall, between the balconies. Though this
seems an unusual location to us today, the placement of the altar in the
middle of one of the long walls was not unusual in colonial churches. (I
have seen other examples.)
Seating was segregated by 1775 and probably had been since the church was
built. The main floor was for married couples who came to church with their
mate. One balcony was for women and the other balcony was for men. A widowed
man or even a man who came to church without his wife would sit in the men's
balcony. Thus, there was an age mixture in the balconies. Though their
attendance is not recorded, slaves sat in the back of the balconies
(according to the practice in other colonial churches).
When this original building proved not to have enough space is unknown. At
some point, probably before the organ was purchased, another wing was built.
The plan became a "T" where the original building was the cross bar of the T
(the transept), and the new wing became the upright of the T. At the foot of
the T, a small balcony became the loft for the organ. I believe that the new
wing came before the organ since the decision to purchase the organ is
recorded in the church register, but without any discussion as to where to
install it, as though space would not be a problem.
There are eight extant Tannenberg organs, all very similar, in existence. I
believe the Hebron organ is the only one still used regularly, though the
others are in working condition. David Tannenberg was a Moravian and the Moravians
made music a major part of their worship service. The Hebron organ is the
last, but one, built by Tannenberg.
In the nineteenth century, the interior of Hebron church was "modernized". A
ceiling was installed which hid the trusses of the roof. Frescoes were
painted on the ceiling.
(Spring City Lutheran Church, here in Chester County, Pennsylvania, has a
Tannenberg organ. About 1900 they retired the "old" organ and bought a new
one, though the Tannenberg remained in place. Today, the replacement organ is
worn out and gone. The Tannenberg is still there and being used for concerts.)
Nr. 342:
I've been found out; at least one of you has detected that I am not a
historian. I admit I like history. (When I was in a one room school, there
was plenty of free time to use as you wished. A favorite activity of mine
was reading the history books.)
When I started reading about Germanna and its history, I was struck by the
inconsistency of the statements which were being made. I decided that I
would have to dig a little deeper to find the true story. At first, little
did I realize how erroneous much of the history was. It was not a case of
applying a band aid, surgery was required.
Here are examples of statements that do not hang together. Willis Kemper
makes the statement that the Germans were settled on the Germanna tract by
Spotswood to work his iron mine, build his iron furnace, and make iron. The
major problem with this statement is that the Germanna tract is thirteen
miles away from the iron furnace. It just does not make sense that Spotswood
would place the workers at a distance of thirteen miles from their work.
Also, Spotswood, in a letter, said two years after the Germans arrived that
they had done no work for him in that two years. This also makes Kemper's
statement very dubious.
One man, Brawdus Martin, realized how inane Kemper's statement was. His,
Martin's, solution to this was to relocate Germanna to be at the furnace
site. In order to try and prove his point, he actually manufactured false
evidence which he presented in the minutes of the old "Society of Germanna
Colonies". (In the academic world, a researcher would be removed from his
position with disgrace for such an action; however, it appears that Brawdus
Martin is going to have a visitor's center named after him by the Memorial
Foundation of Germanna Colonies in Virginia.) This was a case of error piled
on error.
How did Kemper's line of thought get started? Kemper made the observation
that the First Germanna Colony came from a region known for its iron work.
Eventually, Spotswood was the owner of an iron mine and furnace. Therefore,
Kemper said, it must be the case that Spotswood imported the Germans to do
this work. Though the first two statements were true, it does not follow
that Kemper's conclusion is true.
How can one tell this? The best way is to read what Spotswood himself said.
He is clear that, by the time the Germans left Germanna, only the mines
had been developed and this work did not start until about 1717. There was
no furnace even as late as 1719 or 1720. Another man who had a lot to say on
the topic was Christopher de Graffenried. Much of what these gentlemen said
is available in book form. The books may not be in every library but they
are obtainable through interlibrary loans. In addition, there are many
original documents. While most of these are in England, microfilms of many
are available at the Library of Virginia.
Nr. 343:
For someone who wishes to examine early documents pertaining to the history
of the Germanna Colonies, here are some recommendations:
Christopher de Graffenried wrote three longhand manuscripts after he
returned to Switzerland from America. Two of these are in French and one is
in German. They are quite similar in tone but each of them has different
marginal notes, which he appears to have added. Vincent H. Todd examined
these manuscripts and compared them. He published a summary with notes that
comment on the differences in the manuscripts. See "Christoph von
Graffenried's Account of the Founding of New Bern" in PUBLICATIONS OF THE
NORTH CAROLINA HISTORICAL COMMISSION, Raleigh, 1920. The tenor of the notes
is that Graffenried felt his failure in America was not his fault and he is
determined to let the world know that. He divides his notes into sections
and tells what went wrong. Though extremely self-serving, these memoirs do
have many facts embedded. The most frustrating thing about the notes is the
absence of dates. One has to consult other sources to fix the times.
R. A. Brock, as editor, collected the letters of Alexander Spotswood and
published them as "The Official Letters of Alexander Spotswood" in
COLLECTIONS OF THE VIRGINIA HISTORICAL SOCIETY, New Series, v. 1, (1882).
Unfortunately, this is not a complete set, but the period of his early
governorship in Virginia is well covered. Like many authors, his comments
are self-serving even though he was describing official actions.
More information about Spotswood and others is to be found in the Library of
Virginia in the Colonial Records Project. This came about shortly after
World War II when Virginia was preparing for the 350th anniversary of the
founding of Jamestown. They sent a crew to England to examine colonial
records and to photograph all of them which mentioned Virginia. Back home,
they prepared an index to these records by subjects and names of people.
These indices are available on-line through the Internet for searching but
the copies of the records require a physical presence in Richmond. Using
these is great fun, though the delay and expense of copies are frustrating.
It is very exciting to see a microfilm of things like the map that Franz
Michel drew in the first decade of the 1700's which was the cause of there
being a Germanna.
Nr. 344:
A reader suggests that I have not covered the Cook family who were members
of the Second Colony. Let's see, if by putting our heads together, if we
can't make a few statements about them. Michael Cook (Koch) was from
Schwaigern, where he had married Barbara Reiner; however, in Virginia, his
wife's name seems to have been Mary. Whether Barbara and Mary are the same
person is not proven, but Mary does appear to be a Reiner. In fact, in the
Hebron Register she is given as a "Steiner", which is surely a mistake for
Reiner. Another minor mystery is why Michael Cook and Jacob Crigler had a
joint patent for land.
Michael and Mary Cook had four children in Virginia: Margaret, Dorothy,
Adam, and George. The Hebron Church Register has many references to the
families and their members, and it is possible to state that the four
children and their marriage partners were (keeping the number 1 for Michael):
I have the following grandchildren of Michael. Children of George Cook and
his first wife, Mary Sarah Reiner:
All of the above children birth's are in the Hebron Register. Children of
George Cook and his second wife, Anna Maria Hoffman:
Not all of the children of the second family are in Register. Another source
of information on the members of the family is the estate settlement of
George Cook. As we proceed with the discussion of the Cook family, perhaps
readers can add or correct what is said.
Incidentally, I am always open to suggestions as to topics to cover here.
But remember that I may not know anything about your favorite topic.
Nr. 345:
Continuing with the Second Germanna Colony family of Michael Cook, some
information was given in the last note about his son, George. One reason for
starting with George is that the Hebron Register and the estate settlement
for George (see Madison County Deed Book for 1805) specify his children,
though uncertainties remain. References to other Cooks in the Hebron
Register must be references to the children of Adam, if not to the sons
George and Adam themselves. (Of course, the next generation could be
appearing also.)
Land deeds and the Hebron references establish that Michael Cook had four
children, two girls, Dorothy and Margaret, who were older than the two sons,
Adam and George. On 1 Aug 1751, Michael Cook gave 100 acres each to Philip
Snyder and to John Carpenter, Jr. On 21 Jul 1757, he gave 112 acres to Adam
and George. This later date for the son's land is the reason for thinking
that the sons were younger than the daughters. The distribution of land was
typically German, with both daughters and sons receiving assets. Also, a
distribution before death is not unusual.
When the final estate of George Cook, one of the sons of Michael, was
divided, there were thirteen heirs who sold smaller pieces of land. Each of
the heirs had a set of witnesses to the act. As a consequence, some
information can be learned from the names of witnesses. For example, there
were two John Blankenbakers in the community at the time. Mary Barbara Cook,
the eldest daughter of George Cook, married one of them, but which one?
Since the husbands signed for the couples in the estate sale, a John
Blankenbaker appeared, and he asked some other Blankenbakers to be his
witnesses. The logical persons to ask would be his brothers. Therefore we
conclude that this John Blankenbaker was the one who was the son of Zacharias.
In a similar way, Jemina Cook had three witnesses, all different from the
other witnesses. Her relationship might be as an unmarried daughter of
George, or it might be as a daughter-in-law. Her witnesses were three Garr
men. It is hard to escape the conclusion that Jemina was a Garr who had
married a son of George who died after his father died and before the estate
was settled; however, I have not researched this question in depth. (If I
could find my copy of the estate settlement, I might look into this more as
I now have a copy of the Garr Genealogy.)
Nr. 346:
[There was no note yesterday due to the severe windstorms in the area.
Sunday night, many trees were blown down, taking out the electrical service
including our well water. It was an approximate hint of what life in the
eighteenth century was like.]
The immigrant, Michael Cook, had two sons, Adam and George. The children of
George are fairly well known, though there is an element of uncertainty
about a probable son who married Jemina Garr. The remaining third generation
Cooks in the Hebron Church Register are assigned to Adam though the process
is not fool proof, as a woman with a Cook surname could have the name as a
birth name or as a married name. The other problem is sorting out the third
generation, especially from the fourth generation.
Adam, of the second generation, did marry Barbara, daughter of Peter
Fleshman, and granddaughter of the 1717 immigrant Cyriacus Fleshman, for on
13 Dec 1773, Adam Cook, Christopher Barler (Barlow), Christopher Ryner
(Reiner), and John and Peter Fleshman signed an agreement regarding the
valuation of the estate of Peter Fleshman, dec'd. (Culpeper D.B. D, p. 222).
In the baptisms of the Cook children, the names of Barlow, Reiner, and
Fleshman occur very frequently, and they are probably cousins. A tentative
list of the children of Adam Cook and his wife, Barbara Fleshman, is:
(B.C. Holtzclaw confused Adam, Sr., with Adam, Jr., and derived a false
conclusion.)
All of the remaining children are less certain.
Whereas most of the children of George Cook, #2, appear as births in the
Hebron Church Register, none of the children of Adam Cook, #3, appear in the
birth register. Many of the children of Adam are to be found in the Hebron
Register as adults though. The probable reason that the children of Adam do
not appear in the birth register is that the register, as it was rewritten in
1776, has no families whose first child was born before 1750. This is a
slight bit of evidence that Adam may have been older than George, whose first
child was born in 1751.
Nr. 347:
The children of the two daughters of Michael and Mary (Reiner) Cook, 1717
immigrants to Virginia, are known to a better degree than the children of
Adam Cook. One of the daughters, Dorothy, married John Carpenter, Jr. The
children of John and Dorothy are not given in the Hebron Register because
the first child was born before 1750, and the Register includes no families
whose first child was born before 1750. The children of John and Dorothy are
taken to be:
In the last note, Mary was given as a child of Adam Cook. Note that the Mary
here married Peter Cook, so that, after marriage, she would be a Mary Cook.
It is possible that Adam's Mary and Dorothy's Mary, after marriage, have
been confused.
I have a question in my notes to think about. Adam Barlow, Jr.'s, wife was a
Leah. Because the Cook, Reiner, Fleshman, and Barlow families are rather
close, I have wondered if Leah Carpenter could have married Adam Barlow, Jr.
Maybe someone else could comment on this question.
The will of John Carpenter, Jr., who died in 1804, mentions the children
John, Michael, Samuel, Mary Cook, Margaret Carpenter, and Susanna Jesse.
Thus, George and Leah in the list above are not confirmed by the will of
John Carpenter, Jr.
In the Hebron Register, records for the Carpenters are found as both
Zimmerman and as Carpenter. There was another, unrelated, Zimmerman family
who is always found as Zimmerman so that one must ask which family is meant.
Nr. 348:
Margaret Cook, daughter of Michael Cook and his wife Mary Reiner, married
Philip Snyder, a later arrival to the Robinson River community. Philip
received a gift of land from Michael Cook. The children of Philip and
Margaret started arriving before 1750 and therefore do not appear in the
Hebron Church Register. Philip and Margaret appear as sponsors at the
baptisms of the children of her brother, George.
The children of Philip Snyder and Margaret Cook are:
Margaret, above, probably had the full name of Mary Margaret, for Michael
Delph and Mary were parents in 1780 and 1782. Margaret Delph was a sponsor
in 1788. Michael and Margaret were at church in 1776 and 1782, but to
confuse the issue, there is probably an error in 1782, when Michael and
Magdalena were at church in 1778.
Typical baptisms illustrate the family relationships. For example, Michael
and Mary Snyder had Adam baptized (born 28 Aug 1774) with sponsors Adam
Delph and Rebecca Delph from her family. From his family he had Elizabeth
Snyder, his sister. Frederick Tanner was also a sponsor. When Anna Snyder
was baptized (born 21 Jan 1776), Joseph Snyder was a sponsor and Daniel and
Rebecca Delph were sponsors. After a gap of several years, which should not
be taken as signifying anything, Michael and Mary Snyder had Elizabeth (b.
28 Jan 1790) and Josua (b. 12 May 1793) baptized on 16 Jun 1793. By this
time, the pattern of the sponsors had changed and the parents served as the
sponsors.
Note that there are two families of Michael and Mary. There is Michael and
Mary Snyder, and there is Michael and Mary Delph. The two Marys swapped
maiden names and married names. It tends to confuse one.
Nr. 349:
Christian Herr, like his father, Hans Herr, was a Mennonite minister. As was
typical of the Anabaptists then, Christian had other occupations, in his
case farming and distilling. His estate inventory in 1750 shows that he
owned two stills. Today, Anabaptists frown severely on the use of alcoholic
beverages. With our own Germanna colonists, we often find that they owned
stills. A short presentation here on the use of alcohol through the ages is
based on material from the current issue (June 1998) of "Scientific
American". If you are interested in my own views on alcohol, I have a bottle
of spirits that is advertised as aged seven years but, since I have had the
bottle, at least some of the contents have aged another fourteen years.
Drinks with a high percentage of alcohol are relatively modern, arising only
in the last few hundred years in the western world. Prior to that time,
drinks with a low percentage of alcohol, such as beer and wine, have been
used for perhaps ten thousand years. As civilization developed or became
concentrated in a region, the water supplies became polluted. It simply was
not safe to drink the water and beer and wine filled the need for safe liquids.
How many instances can you cite in the Bible where water is extolled as a
drink? Jesus converted water into wine and not wine into water. In the
writings of the Greeks, water is not mentioned favorably except for mountain
springs, deep wells, or from rainwater. Roman towns on a river had water
supplied by an aqueduct from sources several miles away because the river
water was too polluted. The river was not viewed as a source of water but a
disposal means. Unless you were a hermit, living away from civilization, the
water was often not fit to drink. This has only changed in the last one or
two centuries in the western world.
Additionally, alcoholic beverages were a supply of calories besides being a
liquid. The beverages kept well from one growing season to the next.
In 1777, Frederick the Great of Prussia was disturbed by the fad for coffee
which had to be imported. He said, "It is disgusting to notice the increase
in the quantity of coffee used by my subjects, and the amount of money that
goes out of the country as a consequence. Everybody is using coffee; this
must be prevented. His majesty was brought up on beer, and so were both his
ancestors and officers. Many battles have been fought and won by soldiers
nourished on beer, and the King does not believe that coffee-drinking
soldiers can be relied upon to endure hardships in case of another war."
Nr. 350:
As to the history of alcoholic beverages, some people give this sequence.
Stone age people may have left a pot of honey unattended. Given a little
time, fermentation takes place and the result may have been pleasing to the
user. With a little experimentation, other substances of high sugar content,
perhaps dates or sap, could have been substituted. The essential recipe was
to let time to its thing.
Major advances did not occur until agriculture developed plentiful grains
and sweeter grapes. The wild grape is normally not sweet enough. By 6000 BC,
people in Armenia were growing grapes that were sweet enough to produce
wine. Before 3000 BC, the Egyptians and Babylonians were drinking beer from
wheat and barley.
Alcohol and agriculture were closely tied together. As more efficient
methods of growing the grains developed, people were released to live in
cities. Concentrations of people polluted the water and made it unsafe. The
alternative was beer and wines.
Babylonian tablets more than six thousand years old tell how to make beer.
The Greek word "akratidzomai", which came to mean "to breakfast", literally
means "to drink undiluted wine". Simultaneously with this increased use of
alcoholic beverages, people in the west acquired the gene which makes the
enzyme necessary for alcohol metabolism. In the east, only about half of the
people have this ability and alcohol never had the role that it did in the
west. The alternative in the east was tea using boiled water which killed
the contaminating agents.
Until our middle ages, the alcohol content remained low. Even so,
intoxication from excessive use was possible and appeals were made for
moderation in its use. But the appeal was not to avoid alcohol but to be
moderate in its use.
In 700 AD, the Arabs discovered distillation using the difference in the
boiling points of alcohol and water. In fact, our word "alcohol" comes from
the Arabic, where it means "basic essence". The resultant liquid had a much
higher alcohol content.
In the 18th century a religious antagonism developed against alcohol,
especially by the Quakers and Methodists. But the fact remained that the
water of the Thames was as polluted as any stream ever was. Water was the
biggest spreader of dysentery, cholera, and typhoid. Gradually, though, it
became understood that excessive use of alcohol was very damaging to the body.
By the end of the last century, the Mennonites in the western US had
developed a policy of abstaining from alcohol, while the Mennonites in the
eastern US still allowed their members to use alcohol. The westerners
appealed to the easterners to join them in a united front against alcohol.
The eastern Mennonites agreed.
And so, from Christian Herr of two and one-half centuries ago, who owned two
stills, the Mennonites have come to the position of avoiding alcohol. This
was made possible by the advances in sanitation.
(This page contains the FOURTEENTH set of Notes, Nr. 326 through Nr. 350.)
John and George would like very much to hear from readers of these Germanna History pages. We welcome your criticisms, compliments, corrections, or other comments. When you click on "click here" below, both of us will receive your message. We would like to hear what you have to say about the content of the Notes, and about spelling, punctuation, format, etc. Just click here to send us your message. Thank You!
There is a Mailing List (also known as a Discussion List or Discussion Group), called
GERMANNA_COLONIES, at RootsWeb. This List is open to all subscribers for the broadcast
of their messages. John urges more of you to make it a research tool for answering your questions,
or for summarizing your findings, on any subject concerning the Germanna Colonies of Virginia.
On this List, you may make inquiries of specific Germanna SURNAMES. At present, there are
about 1200 subscribers and there are bound to be users here who can help you.
If you are interested in subscribing to this List, click here. You don't need to type anything, just click on "Send". You will shortly receive a Welcome Message explaining the List.
(As of 12 April 2007, John published the last of his "Germanna Notes"; however, he is going to periodically post to the GERMANNA_COLONIES Mailing List in the form of "Genealogy Comments" on various subjects, not necessarily dealing with Germanna. I'm starting the numbering system anew, starting with Comment Nr. 0001.)
1) Germany: some basics,
2) Emigration,
3) Immigration,
4) Arrival in America, and
5) Church and civil records.
There were:
What this does not give us the number in the service trades, or on the farm.
The farmers probably outnumbered any other classification. But what makes
the classification slightly suspect is that most of the craftsmen above did
some farming.
55 coblers,
46 butchers,
33 bakers,
24 leather workers of various types,
16 in the cloth crafts,
16 blacksmiths, nailsmiths, and coppersmiths,
15 stocking makers,
11 linen weavers,
11 cabinetmakers,
8 glassmakers,
8 potters,
8 ropemakers,
7 each of coopers, bookbinders, millers, locksmiths, spur
makers, & soapmakers,
6 hatmakers,
6 coach or wheelmakers,
4 each of wood turners, furriers, needlemakers, & tin founders,
3 each of tinsmiths, gold workers, button makers, fitters and mechanics, & tanners,
2 each of combmakers, basketmakers, & lacemakers, and
1 each of papermaker, velvet worker, polisher, & type founder.
1 Taler = 24 Groschen
1 Taler = 1� Gulden
1 Groschen = 12 Pfennige
6) Archives and repositories,
7) German genealogy aids,
8) Genealogical tools,
9) Geography, and
10) American Military Resources.
11) Land in America,
12) United States census,
13) Newspapers & American records,
14) Using libraries, and
15) Fraternal organizations.
ITEMS TO BE WORN OR CARRIED: Underpants, shirt, towel, gloves, hardtack,
pants, suspenders, candles, snow boots, handkerchief, tallow, stockings,
hat, nightshirt, wool coat, chewing tobacco, and an iron needle.
ITEMS TO BE WORN OR CARRIED: Long underwear, stockings, belt, jacket,
gloves, woolen petticoat, apron, dress, handkerchief, snow boots, button
skirt, nightgown, candles, towels, and hardtack.
BAGS OF VEGEtable AND BERRY SEEDS: Peas, (three varieties), beans (four
varieties), turnips (several kinds), beets (three varieties), carrots (two
varieties), onions (three varieties), cabbage (three varieties), pickle
cucumbers (three varieties), spinach, rhubarb, kohlrabi, leeks, and berries
(three varieties).
16) German education & universities,
17) Language,
18) German life,
19) Naming practices, and
20) German military resources.
Sunday: salt meat, meal pudding, and prunes.
Monday: salt bacon, pea soup, and potatoes.
Tuesday: salt meat, rice, and prunes.
Wednesday: smoked bacon, sauerkraut, and potatoes.
Thursday: salt meat, potatoes, and bean soup.
Friday: herring, meal and prunes.
Saturday: salt bacon, pea soup, and potatoes.
55 pounds of ship's zwieback or hardtack,
from 6 to 12 pounds of butter,
2 bushels of potatoes,
salt,
15 pounds of flour,
8 pounds of rice,
4 pounds of barley,
"any amount of peas, beans, and some meat stock for a fresh soup,"
vinegar to drink (absolutely necessary),
tea, sugar, chocolate, and brandy ("as you wish"),
20 pounds of well-salted beef,
6 pounds of bacon for fat,
lemons, dried plums, pepper.
21) Religions,
22) Germans from Russia,
23) Pennsylvania,
24) Beyond Germany, and
25) Eastern and Alsace neighbors.
26) Business and trade,
27) Keeping track of time,
28) This and that,
29) Cultural institutions, and
30) Libraries, museums, publishers.
31) Societies & organizations, and
32) Tourism, chambers of commerce, & more.
"Address the request to the:
National Archives and Records Administration
8601 Adelphi Road
College Park, Maryland 20740-6001
The following is a secondary source by Klaus Wust: "Palatines and Switzers
for Virginia, 1705-1738: Costly Lessons for Promoters and Emigrants", in
YEARBOOK OF GERMAN-AMERICAN STUDIES, v.19 (1984), pp.43-55. As a general
rule, anything by Klaus Wust merits your attention. Klaus examines many
documents, in a variety of languages, to obtain his information. Because
some of the documents are in German and French and inaccessible, Klaus'
studies and reports are the best things for most of us. Be sure and study
his notes and bibliography.
Other candidate children are:
This material has been compiled and placed on this web site by George W. Durman, with the
permission of John BLANKENBAKER. It is intended for personal use by genealogists and
researchers, and is not to be disseminated further.
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